Glossary

Original diagram of two models discussed in Kara’s study: direct dependence between texts (01) or a shared narrative milieu feeding two versions (02). The arrows are hypothetical, not evidence of a documented transfer

Person

Yasin Kara

Author of a 2026 study comparing Dhul Qarnayn with the Syriac Alexander tradition.

صيغ للاسم: Yasin Kara

The University of Haifa on Mount Carmel and neighbouring buildings. Capture metadata dates the photograph to 13 February 2009; Haifa Municipality released it in June 2010. It shows the institution whose website records Yitzhaq Feder’s former teaching and research affiliations

Person

Yitzhaq Feder

Scholar of purity, expiation and ritual in the Hebrew Bible and its ancient setting, including Hittite comparisons.

صيغ للاسم: Yitzhaq Feder، Yitzhak Feder

William Holman Hunt, The Scapegoat, mid-1850s; Lady Lever catalogue dates the painting to 1854, LL3623. Public-domain reproduction via Wikimedia Commons. Later religious artistic interpretation, not an archaeological depiction of Leviticus’s rite or a portrayal of Azazel

Entity

Yom Kippur / Day of Atonement

Jewish observance whose Leviticus 16 setting involves sanctuary purification and the sent-away goat; distinguish ancient instructions from later practice and interpretation.

صيغ للاسم: Yom Kippur، Day of Atonement

Person

Younus Y. Mirza

Scholar of Arabic and Islamic studies whose work compares biblical and Qur'anic narratives; published a 2013 study of Abraham's intended sacrifice.

صيغ للاسم: Younus Mirza

Greek marble head, third or second century BCE. The Metropolitan Museum identifies the deity as probably Zeus; the attribution is uncertain, and the object postdates the Iliad's formation

Entity

Zeus

Zeus is the sky god and leading deity in many Greek traditions. In the Iliad he presides over divine gatherings while others can still speak and object.

صيغ للاسم: Zeus

Eridu ziggurat remains, photographed by David Stanley on 11 April 2016. The visible architecture postdates the Ubaid; it is not a photograph of its earliest temples or evidence of their deity’s identity

Entity

Ziggurat

Elevated temple tower of terraces in historical Mesopotamian architecture. Not every temple platform is a ziggurat; similar elevation does not establish one developmental route for all early structures.

صيغ للاسم: ziggurat، ziggurats

Modern excavations at the northern end of Jerusalem's eastern hill, photographed in 2011. Context for the city's history, not the site of Abraham's narrated sacrifice

Site

Zion

Name of a stronghold linked to David's city in 2 Samuel, later extended to Jerusalem and its religious centre; its referent changes across texts.

صيغ للاسم: Mount Zion، Sion

Modern guide to the surviving Sumerian text: decision and warning, lost preparations, seven days and nights, sacrifice and divine life in Dilmun. Cause and warning speaker are not clearly preserved. Not a tablet image or hero portrait

Entity

Ziusudra

King and priest in the fragmentary Sumerian Flood Story, preserved in an Old Babylonian copy. Survives, sacrifices and receives divine life in Dilmun; historicity is unproven.

صيغ للاسم: Ziusudra، Zi-ud-sura، Ziudsura

Modern diagram of textual layers, not a Zoroaster portrait or Avesta manuscript. No single composition year for each layer; surviving-copy age is not an idea’s age

Person

Zoroaster / Zarathustra

Figure to whom tradition attributes the Gathas; lifetime and location are uncertain.

صيغ للاسم: Zoroaster، Zarathustra، Zarathushtra

Modern diagram of textual layers, not a Zoroaster portrait or Avesta manuscript. No single composition year for each layer; surviving-copy age is not an idea’s age

Entity

Zoroastrianism

Iranian religious tradition associated with Zoroaster, with changing texts and conceptions of goodness, evil and endings.

صيغ للاسم: Zoroastrianism، Mazdaism، Mazdayasna

The southern excavation area at Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia. Domestic building remains support study of dwelling, burial and social memory; the photograph is not a reconstruction of the original houses

Site

Çatalhöyük

A Neolithic site in central Anatolia where domestic houses combined dwelling with burial, symbolism and social memory.

صيغ للاسم: Çatalhöyük، Catalhoyuk

Modern conceptual illustration evoking the boat, horned fish, seeds and mountain in Manu traditions, especially the epic version; not an ancient artifact or documented location. © IL Archive, CC0

Ancient text

Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa

A later Vedic ritual work whose 1.8.1 preserves the earliest surviving detailed Indian account of the fish rescuing Manu.

صيغ للاسم: Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa، Satapatha Brahmana

A modern view of Şanlıurfa from Urfa Castle, 5 July 2006, including a mosque and minarets of the later city. It shows the contemporary city, not Göbekli Tepe or the Neolithic period

Site

Şanlıurfa

A modern city in southeastern Turkey, near Göbekli Tepe, whose museum displays Urfa Man.

صيغ للاسم: Şanlıurfa، Sanliurfa، Urfa

Modern numerical diagram: šar₂ = 3,600 = 60×60. The number alone specifies neither years nor Nibiru’s orbit; Akkadian šar, king, is a different word

Entity

šar₂: The Numerical Value 3,600

Sumerian numerical term valued at 3,600, or 60×60. Alone it specifies neither years nor a planet’s orbit; distinct from Akkadian šar, king.

صيغ للاسم: šar₂، Sumerian shar

Cuneiform tablet from Babylon, ca. 554 BCE, catalogued by the Met as a proxy contract for the purchase of an enslaved person from the Egibi archive. It is Neo-Babylonian, centuries later than Hammurapi; its inscription, not read here, does not establish that any particular Torah or Hammurapi rule governed this transaction. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, object 79.7.11; Public Domain

Entity

ʿEved: Service and Subordination in Ancient Hebrew

A Hebrew word whose status depends on each rule’s kinship, ownership and duration; not one modern legal category.

صيغ للاسم: ʿeved، eved، Hebrew servant