Glossary

Modern conceptual illustration juxtaposing Gilgamesh’s water-borne plant with two trees in Genesis’s garden. It depicts no excavated artifact and does not establish identical stories. © IL Archive, CC0

Entity

Gilgamesh’s Rejuvenating Plant

A thorny underwater plant in Tablet XI that Gilgamesh intended to test for renewed youth before losing it to a snake; the text does not establish perpetual immortality.

صيغ للاسم: Gilgamesh’s plant، plant of rejuvenation

Person

Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo

Italian artist (1727–1804) who depicted the Holy Family resting beside a palm.

صيغ للاسم: Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo

First six names in SF 1 according to CDLI’s current reading. Modern transliterated-name diagram, not a photograph or copy of the tablet’s signs; order applies to this witness

Entity

God lists

Texts collecting divine names for preservation, teaching and classification, with varying theological organization.

صيغ للاسم: god lists، god list

Modern comparison of names and barriers in specified texts; no identification of a living people or proof of a complete transmission chain

Entity

Gog and Magog

Names with different roles in genealogies, invasion prophecy, end-time nations and barrier traditions.

صيغ للاسم: Gog and Magog

Hieroglyphic texts on the walls of Unas’s pyramid at Saqqara, from the late Fifth Dynasty, around the twenty-fourth century BCE. Photograph taken on 13 October 2017. The image provides context for ancient Egyptian texts used in scholarly comparisons of creation traditions

Person

Gordon H. Johnston

Old Testament scholar at Dallas Theological Seminary, examining biblical literature and its ancient Near Eastern contexts.

صيغ للاسم: Gordon Johnston، Gordon H. Johnston

Modern comparison: labour and shaking in Maryam, journey and bending in Pseudo-Matthew; resemblance does not settle the source

Ancient text

Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew

Latin work on Mary and Jesus’ childhood, distinct from canonical Matthew.

صيغ للاسم: Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew، Pseudo-Matthew

Modern diagram distinguishing universal life in the hymn from the king’s particular knowledge. Not an inscription facsimile, an Aten portrait or proof of every Egyptian’s creed

Ancient text

Great Hymn to Aten

Praise text preserved in Ay’s Amarna tomb, depicting the world’s life, Aten and the king’s special knowledge.

صيغ للاسم: Great Hymn to Aten، Great Aten Hymn

Limestone relief of two servants carrying food and drink, Persepolis, ca. 358–338 BCE, under Artaxerxes III. Metropolitan Museum, 34.158, public-domain photograph. Evidence for the representation of banquet service, not Esther, Haman or a banquet of Xerxes

Entity

Greek Additions to Esther

Six blocks conventionally labeled A–F, adding a dream, letters, prayers and an audience scene to Greek witnesses of Esther.

صيغ للاسم: Greek Esther additions، Greek Additions to Esther

Modern comparison: recension217 has eight humans; Latin opening seven; Qur’an reports3,5,7 plus dog. No exclusive source identified

Person

Gregory of Tours

Sixth-century Christian author; the Latin Sleepers narrative’s ending names him and John the Syrian in its translation credit.

صيغ للاسم: Gregory of Tours

Statue of Gudea, Met 59.2, ca. 2090 BCE. The human ruler of Lagash, not a deity or an image of the Anunna collective

Entity

Gudea

Ruler of Lagash in the late third millennium BCE, whose inscriptions document temple construction and the name Anunna.

صيغ للاسم: Gudea

Assyrian tablet of about 660 BCE naming Gyges of Lydia; a written witness, not the king's portrait

Person

Gyges of Lydia

Seventh-century BCE king of Lydia in western Anatolia, called Guggu in an Assyrian inscription; his identification with Ezekiel's Gog is unproven.

صيغ للاسم: Gyges

Building C at Göbekli Tepe, southeastern Turkey, photographed in 2019. T-shaped pillars and communal architecture in a settlement with a ritual component; any proposed divine identities remain unknown. Some pillars have been restored

Site

Göbekli Tepe

A Neolithic site in southeastern Turkey, known for communal buildings and T-shaped pillars; the excavation team describes a settlement with a pronounced ritual component.

صيغ للاسم: Göbekli Tepe، Gobekli Tepe

Contemporary conceptual illustration of sheaves left in a harvested field, inspired by Deuteronomy’s harvest rules. Not a record of an identified ancient village or evidence that the rules were enforced; IL Archive / CC0

Entity

Gēr: the Resident Outsider in Hebrew Texts

A person living within an Israelite community; neither every foreigner nor a modern legal refugee category.

صيغ للاسم: ger، gēr، resident alien

Modern comparison of the sons of God and ha-satan in Job, the host’s deliberations in 1 Kings, and prophetic hearing in Jeremiah. Different literary functions, not a reconstructed historical chamber or an identification of their members

Entity

Ha-satan in Job

The adversary or accuser in Job, with the Hebrew definite article; among the sons of God, acting within permission and limits rather than carrying every later Satanic trait.

صيغ للاسم: ha-satan

Hades and Persephone inside an Attic cup, about 430 BCE; British Museum 1847,0909.6 / E 82. An ancient artistic representation of the underworld’s rulers

Entity

Hades

Underworld god in Greek narratives, and brother of Zeus and Poseidon in the Iliad exchange.

صيغ للاسم: Hades

Camille Corot, Hagar in the Wilderness, 1835, The Met 38.64; later artistic depiction of Genesis, not a historical likeness

Person

Hagar

Figure in Genesis: an Egyptian woman in Sarah and Abraham's household and Ishmael's mother; chapters 16 and 21 narrate her flight and later expulsion and survival.

صيغ للاسم: Agar

A limestone votive monument from Sippar, showing Hammurabi with his left arm raised. The British Museum dates it to his reign, 1792–1750 BCE; object 22454. Photograph by Marie-Lan Nguyen, 2012

Person

Hammurabi

King of Babylon in Mesopotamia, reigning around 1792–1750 BCE. A celebrated legal text preserved on a stele and cuneiform copies bears his name.

صيغ للاسم: Hammurabi، Hammurapi

Modern summary of passages about heavenly beings and Abraham, not depictions or an independent Abrahamic biography. Roles and surviving names do not establish a particular ancient god’s conversion into an angel. [9][10][11][27][23]

Entity

Hanif

Quranic description of Abraham linked to submission and rejection of association.

صيغ للاسم: hanif، ḥanīf، hanifism

Modern diagram of Hayonim burial duration, Grave XVII phases and ornaments. Memory and identity interpret the evidence; duration does not establish one continuous group or ancestor worship

Site

Hayonim Cave

A Galilean cave with Natufian graves and ornaments; its long funerary use informs research on identity and place memory.

صيغ للاسم: Hayonim، Hayonim Cave

Modern comparison of the sons of God and ha-satan in Job, the host’s deliberations in 1 Kings, and prophetic hearing in Jeremiah. Different literary functions, not a reconstructed historical chamber or an identification of their members

Entity

Heavenly Host

A heavenly group whose meaning varies: celestial bodies in some texts, attendants around the throne deliberating in 1 Kings 22.

صيغ للاسم: heavenly host، host of heaven

A page of Deuteronomy from the Hebrew Aleppo Codex, dating to the tenth century CE. A witness to manuscript and vocalization traditions, not an original manuscript from the first millennium BCE

Entity

Hebrew

A Northwest Semitic language in the Canaanite group, with ancient and modern forms.

صيغ للاسم: Hebrew

Modern diagram distinguishing preserved text from inferred Hebrew translation source. Agreement in Jeremiah does not establish a whole scroll identical to all Greek readings

Entity

Hebrew Vorlage

Hebrew text underlying a translation; may survive partly or be inferred, so reconstruction is not a discovered copy.

صيغ للاسم: Hebrew Vorlage، Hebrew source text

The obelisk of Senusret I at Matariya in Cairo, at the site of ancient Iunu/Heliopolis, 2 September 2001. It belongs to the Middle Kingdom, in the twentieth century BCE; the monument’s date differs from that of this modern photograph

Site

Heliopolis, ancient Iunu

Heliopolis is the Greek name of Egyptian Iunu, at Matariya in northern present-day Cairo

صيغ للاسم: Heliopolis، Iunu

Modern comparison of working definitions. Terms overlap and vary across scholars; arrangement does not date three successive stages for everyone

Entity

Henotheism

Privileging one god while acknowledging others in the working definition used here; not automatically monotheism or a fixed social phase.

صيغ للاسم: henotheism، henotheistic worship

Hephaestus returning to Olympus on a donkey, on an ancient Greek cup in the British Museum, 1836,0224.48. The image depicts the return story, rather than the Iliad’s assembly scene

Entity

Hephaestus

God of metalworking in Greek traditions; the Iliad portrays him as Hera’s son and mediator in her dispute with Zeus.

صيغ للاسم: Hephaestus

A woman tentatively identified in the museum catalogue as Hera, nursing Heracles; vase of about 365–350 BCE, British Museum 1846,0925.13. The female figure’s identification remains uncertain

Entity

Hera

Greek goddess and Zeus’s wife, appearing in council and family-disagreement scenes in the Iliad.

صيغ للاسم: Hera

Gold solidus of 629–631 CE bearing official representations of Heraclius and his son Heraclius Constantine; a Byzantine coin, not a photographic likeness

Person

Heraclius, Byzantine emperor

Byzantine emperor who ruled 610–641 CE; his victory over Persia informs dating proposals for some Syriac Alexander texts.

صيغ للاسم: Heraclius the emperor

Hermes carrying a ram on an Attic vase, about 515–510 BCE; Louvre Cp 639 / F 159. An archaeological representation of one aspect of the god

Entity

Hermes

Greek god acting as a messenger in the Odyssey passages examined here.

صيغ للاسم: Hermes

A colossal statue of Thoth as a baboon at Ashmunein/Hermopolis, from Amenhotep III’s reign in the fourteenth century BCE. Photographed on 18 September 2006; it offers a material example of the city’s association with Thoth

Site

Hermopolis, Khemenu

Hermopolis is an ancient Egyptian city at Ashmunein, called Khemenu in Egyptian

صيغ للاسم: Hermopolis، Khemenu، Ashmunein، Khmun

Person

Herod the Great

Late-first-century-BCE king of Judaea in the journey-to-Egypt story.

صيغ للاسم: Herod the Great

Hesiod and the Muse, an 1891 oil-on-wood painting by Gustave Moreau, Musée d’Orsay RF 1961 7. A modern artistic reception of the ancient poet, not a contemporary likeness

Person

Hesiod

Greek poet whose major work is generally dated to the late eighth or early seventh century BCE, including the Theogony.

صيغ للاسم: Hesiod

Modern map of selected Theogony passages; verse order does not prove a transmission route

Ancient text

Hesiod’s Theogony

Greek poem on divine generations and Zeus’s kingship; its surviving form does not identify all of Hesiod’s sources.

صيغ للاسم: Theogony، Hesiod’s Theogony

Tablet of a hymn to Marduk, The Met 86.11.313; first millennium BCE, in Sumerian with Akkadian translation. A textual example of a deity’s exaltation, not proof of monotheism or a universal model of the high god

Entity

High god

A deity with a senior position among other gods; this does not itself mean monotheism.

صيغ للاسم: high god

Modern evidence guide for Hilazon. Finds, age and skeletal abnormalities are observations; shaman is the excavators’ interpretation. Not a reconstruction of the burial or woman

Site

Hilazon Tachtit

A Late Natufian burial cave in Galilee, with an exceptional woman’s grave and deposits interpreted as funerary feasts.

صيغ للاسم: Hilazon Tachtit، Hilazon Tachtit Cave

House remains in an excavated area of Çatalhöyük, photographed on 12 June 2013. Architectural layers are visible; the photograph does not identify this building as a temple or a “history house”

Entity

History houses

A modern concept for certain Çatalhöyük houses accumulating rebuilding, burials and elaboration over time. It concerns a place’s history and group, without making the house a temple or every building identical.

صيغ للاسم: history houses، history house

The Lion Gate at Hattusha, the Hittite capital near Boğazköy in modern Türkiye. A contemporary view of the remains, photographed by Bernard Gagnon on 19 May 2014

Entity

Hittites

Ancient people and kingdom of Anatolia, dominating much of Anatolia and northern Syria around 1650–1200 BCE.

صيغ للاسم: Hittites

Diagram distinguishing textual contexts and scales; not an archaeological temple plan or one original image merging the traditions

Entity

Holy of Holies

Innermost sacred space in sanctuary descriptions; Kings places the Ark under room cherubim. Textual concept, not an excavated site identified here.

صيغ للاسم: Holy of Holies، inner sanctuary

Roman portrait bust representing Homer, second century CE; British Museum 1805,0703.85. An artistic likeness made long after the epics, rather than a contemporary portrait

Person

Homer

The name to which Greek tradition attributes the Iliad and Odyssey.

صيغ للاسم: Homer

Modern illustrated glossary of later technical usage. Meanings changed between authors; modern psychological person is no automatic equivalent of ancient hypostasis. The diagram does not depict the divine being

Entity

Homoousios — consubstantial

Term in the 325 creed relating the Son’s substance to the Father, debated in reception.

صيغ للاسم: homoousios، consubstantial، same substance

Modern diagram of the release from captivity into light at Theogony669. It explains the scene when comparing emergence verbs, without reconstructing the Hundred-Handers’ appearance

Entity

Hundred-Handers

Beings in Hesiod’s poem, shown in one scene leaving captivity and darkness for light.

صيغ للاسم: Hundred-Handers، Hecatoncheires