Category موضوعي
Ritual and changes in belief
Worship, ritual and religious change, including Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions.
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Illustration
Site
Balıklı
A central Anatolian Neolithic site with floor and wall burials and special skull treatment.
Modern Balıklı guide: changing counts in the 2024 and 2025 reports, with floor and wall burials. An entrance in one better-preserved building prevents universal claims of roof access
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Illustration
Site
Aşıklı Höyük
A Neolithic Cappadocian settlement with successive buildings and selected subfloor burials.
Modern Aşıklı guide: 2021 counts, some close relatives and selective burial. Proposed roof hatches are architectural inferences, not evidence of a heaven or underworld doctrine
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Original photograph
Study
The Natufians: What Happened to Religion When People Began to Settle?
Houses, graves, ornaments, feasts and place memory before fully developed agriculture: Natufian evidence and its limits for reconstructing rituals, ancestors and gods.
Aerial view of Shubayqa 1, northeast Jordan, Figure 1 in Richter et al. (2017), with a location map. Natufian architecture; no specific religious function is established
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Illustration
Concept
Personal god
An analytical concept for a deity’s relationship with an individual or family; it may overlap city worship and does not identify the god from a name alone.
Cult records and personal names in Nakata’s 1976 comparison. Modern evidence diagram; not two separate populations or proof that El’s cult was absent beyond the sample
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Original photograph
Study
Eridu: Can We Watch the Temple Being Born?
From eighteen architectural levels to the evidence at XI: what does Eridu’s sequence reveal about temple formation, and where does architectural continuity stop short of identifying Enki?
Eridu ziggurat remains, photographed by David Stanley on 11 April 2016. The visible architecture postdates the Ubaid; it is not a photograph of its earliest temples or evidence of their deity’s identity
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Original photograph
Concept
Ziggurat
Elevated temple tower of terraces in historical Mesopotamian architecture. Not every temple platform is a ziggurat; similar elevation does not establish one developmental route for all early structures.
Eridu ziggurat remains, photographed by David Stanley on 11 April 2016. The visible architecture postdates the Ubaid; it is not a photograph of its earliest temples or evidence of their deity’s identity
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Original photograph
Concept
Abzu
Deep fresh waters in historical Mesopotamian conceptions, associated with Enki/Ea. The name occurs in E-abzu, “House of the Abzu”. It cannot automatically identify an Ubaid platform or a water basin.
Cylinder seal and modern impression showing Enki/Ea; Louvre MNB 1905, Akkadian period, 2340–2200 BCE. Later than the Ubaid, not an image identifying early Eridu’s deity
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Original photograph
Study
Ubaid Figurines: Why Do Their Faces Look Nonhuman?
Elongated heads, slit eyes and a nursing mother: how can we understand Ubaid figurines through artistic tradition, cranial modification and burial without turning a reptilian resemblance into an assumed identity?
Two female Ubaid figurines from Ur; British Museum, 122872 and 122873. At right, a nursing woman whose head is missing. Photograph: Zunkir, CC BY-SA 4.0; appearance alone does not establish identity
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Original photograph
Site
Ain Ghazal
Neolithic site near Amman, Jordan, known for large Pre-Pottery Neolithic plaster statues. Faces and decorated eyes are recognizable, but the figures’ names and religious function remain unresolved.
Head of a plaster statue from Ain Ghazal, Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Jordan Museum, Amman. Photograph: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, CC BY-SA 4.0. A comparison from another community, not direct evidence of an Ubaid maker’s skill
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Original photograph
Study
Ubaid Culture: The World Before Sumer’s Cities
Pottery, water, houses, networks and Eridu: how can we read the transformations preceding Sumer’s cities without assigning Ubaid communities an unproven language, state or divine names?
Ubaid bowl from Eridu cemetery, grave 136; mid-sixth–fifth millennium BCE. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 49.133.2. A specific archaeological object, not a representation of all Ubaid pottery
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Original photograph
Site
Eridu
Abu Shahrain in southern Iraq, with a long architectural sequence beginning before writing. Associated with Enki in historical times, which does not establish the sacred being’s identity in its earliest layers.
Eridu ziggurat remains, photographed by David Stanley on 11 April 2016. The visible architecture postdates the Ubaid; it is not a photograph of its earliest temples or evidence of their deity’s identity
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Original photograph
Study
Çatalhöyük: Where Was the Sacred Without a Known Central Temple?
Houses, burials, horns, colour and memory: how can we interpret ritual life at Çatalhöyük, and what does the 2025 kinship study add, without turning archaeological remains into an unrecorded creed?
House remains in an excavated area of Çatalhöyük, photographed on 12 June 2013. Architectural layers are visible; the photograph does not identify this building as a temple or a “history house”
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Original photograph
Concept
Bucrania
Bull heads or skulls with horns displayed or incorporated in architecture. At Çatalhöyük they occur among the installations of some houses; they do not by themselves establish a ritual’s meaning or a bull god.
A bull head from Çatalhöyük displayed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, photographed on 22 May 2006. The museum display is not its original position within a house; the bull’s presence does not establish a divine identity
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Original photograph
Study
Göbekli Tepe’s T-Shaped Pillars: Humans, Ancestors or Gods?
Hands, dress, abstraction and the central pair: what do Göbekli Tepe’s pillars establish about human form, and what remains open about ancestors and gods? With Urfa Man and the 2025 Karahantepe announcement.
A carved arm beside a fox relief on a pillar in Building D at Göbekli Tepe, photographed in 2019. Human and animal features occur together; the photograph does not establish a divine identity
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Original photograph
Study
Göbekli Tepe: Temple or Social Centre?
How have domestic and food-processing evidence changed our understanding of Göbekli Tepe? Buildings, pillars, feasting and social networks reveal the possibilities and limits of interpreting ritual before writing.
Building D at Göbekli Tepe, photographed in 2019. Central and perimeter pillars show the building’s arrangement. The visible shelter and support braces are modern conservation measures, not a reconstructed ancient roof
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Illustration
Concept
Work feasting
An interpretive model connecting collective labour and hospitality: food accompanies participation in a project. Proposed for some Göbekli Tepe evidence, it does not establish the details of a particular feast.
Modern conceptual diagram of work feasting: people around shared food and participation links. It does not portray specific ancient people, equipment or rites, or reconstruct an event at Göbekli Tepe
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Original photograph
Study
Before We Knew the Names of Gods
What can burials, skulls, figurines and buildings tell us about early beliefs? A study of archaeological evidence and the boundary between observation and interpretation, from Jericho to Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük.
Building C at Göbekli Tepe, southeastern Turkey, photographed in 2019. T-shaped pillars and communal architecture in a settlement with a ritual component; any proposed divine identities remain unknown. Some pillars have been restored
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Original photograph
Concept
Ritual
An organised or distinguished practice meaningful to a community; it may leave traces, but its form alone does not reveal an associated doctrine.
A plastered human skull from Jericho, around 7000 BCE, in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Plaster remodels the face and shells mark the eyes; this treatment alone does not identify the beliefs of its makers
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Illustration
Concept
Ritualization
The acquisition of special qualities by familiar practices or places; an analytical concept that need not separate ritual from everyday life.
Modern diagram of ritualization: a house surrounded by circles suggesting accumulated practices and relationships. A conceptual illustration, not a reconstruction of an ancient house or rite
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Illustration
Concept
Monotheism
Belief in a single God as the only deity, rather than merely the highest among several gods.
Modern conceptual diagram: a single symbol illustrates the sole deity in the definition of monotheism. It is neither the historical symbol of a particular religion nor a sequence of religious development
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