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Evidence and research methods
Reading evidence, comparing interpretations and assessing the limits of inference.
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Illustration
Artifact
Elephantine Ahiqar Papyrus
A fragmentary Aramaic witness, probably from the later fifth century BCE, preserving Ahiqar’s tale and sayings with gaps and editorial restorations.
Modern editorial illustration of a sage writing at an ancient court. Generated explanatory image, not a photograph of P.13446 or a documented reconstruction of Daniel or Ahiqar. © IL Archive, CC0
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Illustration
Artifact
Papyrus D’Orbiney: Tale of the Two Brothers
The sole known Egyptian copy of Bata and Anubis’s tale, written by Inena in the Nineteenth Dynasty around 1215 BCE.
Modern editorial illustration of a household divided by Bata’s accusation; neither an excavated papyrus nor a documented historical reconstruction. © IL Archive, CC0
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Illustration
Artifact
Shabaka Stone
A Memphite inscription from Shabaka’s reign, about 710 BCE, associating Ptah’s creation with heart and tongue; its ancient-copy claim does not independently date the wording.
Modern conceptual illustration of primeval water, an emerging mound and sunrise; neither an excavated Egyptian artifact nor a reconstruction of one text. © IL Archive, CC0
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Original photograph
Artifact
Adapa fragment MLC 1296
Neo-Assyrian clay fragment written in Akkadian, preserving the beginning of Adapa’s story in the Morgan Library & Museum.
Adapa fragment A, MLC 1296, Neo-Assyrian, about the seventh century BCE, Morgan Library & Museum. Preserves the opening; not Amarna EA 356 or a portrait of Adapa or Adam. Photograph: Daderot, 2020; CC0 1.0
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Original photograph
Artifact
Sargon birth tablet K.3401
Akkadian clay tablet from Nineveh preserving Sargon’s birth story in the Neo-Assyrian period, many centuries after the king’s lifetime.
K.3401 from Nineveh, a Neo-Assyrian witness to Sargon’s birth legend, British Museum. A copy later than the king, not Moses’ basket or an image of the infant. © Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.5
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Illustration
Artifact
Elephantine “Passover Letter”
Fragmentary Aramaic letter, Berlin P.13464, dated 419/418 BCE, on Nisan dates and ritual instructions. “Passover” is restored in a lacuna; no complete Torah is attested.
Modern guide to Berlin P.13464, Hananiah’s letter to Jedaniah, 419/418 BCE. Distinguishes surviving wording from restoration; “Passover” belongs to reconstructed text. Not a photograph or complete transcription
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Original photograph
Inscription
Ketef Hinnom amulets
Two silver scroll amulets found in Jerusalem in1979, with wording related to Numbers6. Usually late seventh/early sixth century BCE; they do not date the whole book.
Ketef Hinnom silver amulets displayed at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem; photograph, 2012. Usually dated to the late seventh or early sixth century BCE. A blessing related to Numbers 6, not evidence for the entire book. Display copy resized without cropping
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Original photograph
Inscription
Mesha Stele
Ninth-century BCE inscription of King Mesha of Moab; line 18 mentions Yahweh’s vessels, clear external evidence for the deity associated with Israel.
Mesha Stele, basalt, from Dhiban in Jordan, ninth century BCE; Louvre AO 5066 / KAI 181. Broken, reassembled and supplemented. Yahweh occurs in line 18 according to the published reading; no reading from the photograph is claimed
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Original photograph
Artifact
Urfa Man
A Neolithic human statue from Yeni Mahalle in Şanlıurfa, with a face and obsidian-inlaid eyes but no represented mouth. It was not found at Göbekli Tepe; its original function remains uncertain.
Urfa Man in the Şanlıurfa Archaeology Museum, photographed on 20 September 2019. The statue was found at Yeni Mahalle in Urfa, not Göbekli Tepe. Facial features, eyes and hands are visible; a mouth and separate legs are not represented
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